Assess the Biomedical and Socio-Medical

This essay will assess how useful the biomedical and socio-medical models of health are and what contributions they have made to health and social care. The biomedical model of health is an approach which eliminates psychological and social factors (environment) but only comprises biological issues in trying to recognise or understand an individual’s medial illness/disorder. In the Western world, the biomedical model has dominated all other models of health since the 19th century.This model is the model of health most used by health care professionals and is the foundation of most medical science. As a result, it is the cure that doctors focus on. Their approach is based on what is perceived as normal or abnormal in terms of bodily functions. The biomedical model is most effective with short-term or acute illnesses, where a cause is identified and the relevant treatment is administered. It is least effective when dealing with chronic illnesses; those which persist over long pe riods of time and are managed rather than cured.The biomedical model of health fits in well with the functionalist perspective to sociology as it sees ill-health as being dysfunctional to society. For functionalists, if people adopt the sick role they are exempt from their usual roles and responsibilities. The biomedical model also takes a curative approach, meaning that it focusses on the cure of an illness. Focussing on physical aspects of illnesses means they can be scientifically tested, which therefore allows development of treatments. A disadvantage of the biomedical model of health is that it is not a long-term strategy.By not looking at a patient’s medical history, asking them how they feel and also not asking fully detailed questions about an illness, means that the same illness could re-occur in the future. Marxists criticise the biomedical model of health because this model ignores an individual’s living conditions and Marxists also argue that doctors only b enefit the rich by getting poor people back to good health in order to enable them to go back to work. Further criticisms of this theory are focussed principally on the suggestion that it has over-simplified the biological processes now known to be very intricate.For many diseases, there are multiple and interacting causes. Moreover, such a theory looks only to the agent of disease, and ignores the host and the possibilities of biological adaptation. As stated, this theory is much more easily applicable to acute conditions then to chronic ill-health and is difficult to apply to mental disorders. The biomedical model also cannot explain why some illnesses are more common in some social or ethnic groups, for example, schizophrenia in Afro-Caribbean people.Diseases are differently defined in different cultures and medical definitions of disease have clearly changed over time. Generally, it can be seen that what is viewed as illness in any particular society and at any historical time d epends on cultural norms and social values (Naidoo & Wills, 2004). McKeown (1979) argues that the biomedical model is â€Å"less effective† than other models because health started to improve before the NHS came into place. The socio-medical model argues that health is a complex mix of behavioural, structural, material and cultural factors. All together these impact on health.The social model emphasises the need to address the origins of ill-health, for example, instead of treating a child with asthma; treating the damp conditions that the child is living in. The social model came about in the mid-twentieth century when there was an increasing dissatisfaction with the dominant model of health offered by biomedicine. The emphasis on health as being simply the absence of disease encouraged thinking about only two categories; the health and the disease. The social model of health imbibes social constructs and relativity in its approach to health.It tends to define and redefine h ealth in a continuous manner, and views health differently between individuals, groups, times and cultures. Some supporters of the social model have written extensively about sickness having a role to play in various societies (Parsons, 1951) as this helps to determine the structure of and functionality of the society. The social model is organic and holistic rather than a reductionist, mechanical method. A mechanical system acts according to its programming, its instructions or natural laws.The social model allows for mental as well as physical health. This model also allows for more subtle discrimination of individuals who succeed in leading productive lives in spite of a physical impairment. Another disadvantage of this model is that the conception runs the risk of excessive breadth and of incorporating all of life. Thus, it does not distinguish clearly between the state of being healthy and the consequences of being healthy nor does it distinguish between health and the determin ants of health (Ewles and Simnett, 2010).The development of this social model has been accompanied among the public, by a growing enthusiasm for alternative therapies, which tend to rest on holistic theories. Gradually, these too have been integrated to some extent into the mainstream model. In order to have a comprehensive understanding of health, it is vital to look at various premises of health definition, as just one aspect may not provide a complete answer to the enquiry about our health at a particular given time.It is therefore important to consider the various aspects of health when making a judgement and decision about the health status of an individual. The socio-medical model fits in with the Marxist perspective to sociology, as it focusses on social and environmental factors. Poorer people are more likely to have poorer living conditions. Marxists argue that there are higher levels of illness in more impoverished areas. This model also fits in with current health policie s, for example, Change for Life, which encourages individuals to take more responsibility over their own health.The functionalist perspective also supports this model by stating that if people are taking more responsibility over their health, they will be able to contribute more to society. Finally, feminists such as Lesley Doyal (1995) support the socio-medical model by arguing that women are more likely to become ill because they have more roles in society than men. Doyal argues that women are likely to have a full time job and then still do the majority of the house work/childcare when they get home. A more stressful environment is likely to lead to a higher chance of illness.In conclusion, the biomedical model of health is obviously most easily defined by the absence of disease, though the model is also compatible with more positive definitions in terms of equilibrium of normal functioning. In the socio-medical model health is a positive state of wholeness and well-being associa ted with, but not entirely explained, by the absence of disease, illness or physical and mental impairment. The concepts of health and ill-health are unbalances. The absence of disease may be part of health but health is more than just the absence of disease.

A1 – Include a Reflective Account of the Role of the Practitioner

The role of the practitioner in supporting the learning needs of children is they have to do regular assessments on their development and learning to identify their progress and plan their next steps Beaver, et . al, (2008). The Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS), (2008) states that the role of the practitioner is crucial in observing and reflecting on children’s spontaneous play, building on this by planning and providing a challenging environment which supports specific areas of children’s learning and extends and develops children’s language and communication in their play.See appendix ?. Another role of the practitioner is to work professionally and responsibly such as to work as part of the team, work with parents and partners, participate in providing an environment that is welcoming and stimulating and to meet the learning needs of each individual child by providing a range of activities and experiences Tassoni, et . al, (2007). See appendix ?.Another rol e of the practitioner is to ensure they comply with the codes of practice that protect the employee, these could relate to storage of information, smoking and consumption of alcohol, recruitment procedures, professional development , workplace conditions such as hazards and temperature, risk assessments and equality of opportunity Tassoni, et . al, (2007). See appendix 2. Following policies and procedures is another role of the practitioner they help practitioners to carry out responsibilities and ensure that everyone in the setting including children, parents, staff and other professionals remain safe.Examples of policies are Health and Safety policy, Equal Opportunities policy, Behaviour Management policy and Child Protection policy Tassoni, et . al, (2007). See appendix ?. Another role of the practitioner is to make sure children well-being is at the heart of everything they do and offer learning experiences appropriate to the development stage, interests and learning styles of e ach individual child Enable early years training and consultancy, (2010). See appendix ?.Another role of the practitioner is to work with and involve parents, as parents are the people that know their child best and they will be able to inform you of any particular interests the child enjoys, this will help practitioners to plan activities and experiences Beaver, et . al, (2008). Appendix ?. Another role of the practitioner is to respecting confidentiality of private information involving children and their families. To respect confidentiality practitioners need to keep all nformation about a child and family safe and should stored in a locked filling cabinet or on a password protected computer, this is to ensure that no information is disclosed, if information about a child was to be disclosed it could bring unnecessary upset or strain on the entire family Tassoni, et . al, (2007). See appendix ?. Another role of the practitioner is to meet the diverse needs of children see appendi x 51. The DCSF, (2008) states that practitioners should meet the needs of each individual child by delivery personalised learning, development and care to help children get the best start in life.It also says that practitioners need to promote positive attitudes to diversity and difference with all children. Being reflective is another role of a practitioner, this means thinking about effective you have been in planning activities or communicating with parents. By being reflective practitioners will be able to think about how to repeat something that has worked well or how to improve for next time Tassoni, et . al, (2007). See appendix ?.Being a reflective practitioner makes you aware of their strengths and weaknesses and identifying what they could do differently. There are many benefits of being a reflective practitioner for both themselves and the child some include; skills are developed, personal development, more confident benefits for the child include their individual needs a re more likely to be met, practitioners will have a greater understanding of how to support their development Barber and Paul-Smith, (2009). See appendix ?.

Protecting and Preserving Our Environment Essay

At WD, we recognize the need to preserve and protect the earth’s vital natural resources. We believe that part of being a good corporate citizen and a good neighbor is maintaining or improving the cleanliness of the air, water and land of the locations in which we operate. As a result, our facilities throughout the world comply with applicable environmental laws and regulations, and each has developed and implemented a comprehensive set of practices designed to ensure continued compliance. In addition, we continually review our operations and processes to identify opportunities which allow us to reduce or recycle byproducts generated by our activities. We are also concerned about protecting the natural resources of the communities in which our products are sold and used. We review the content of the products we manufacture and have established programs to eliminate or phase out the use of certain materials restricted by international legislation. We have also begun offering fo r sale a line of products specifically designed to reduce the environmental impact resulting from their use. All of our manufacturing facilities in Asia have environmental management systems in place which are ISO 14001 certified. Each facility has a comprehensive policy and set of supporting procedures addressing environmental permits, pollution prevention, hazardous substances, wastewater and solid wastes, airborne emissions and product content. Our policies express a commitment to continued improvement, and to this end, we review the status of our environmental management systems at least annually. All of our manufacturing facilities have environmental specialists onsite, and we provide training programs on environmental practices for employees whose job duties impact our environmental management systems. In addition, all of our facilities provide clear written direction to all employees and workers in languages appropriate to each site regarding requirements and responsibilities for environmental practices in accordance with company policy. Compliance with RoHS and WEEE Directives WD products manufactured and sold worldwide after August 1, 2005, meet or exceed Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) compliance requirements as mandated by the European Union for electrical and electronic products. The RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC of the European Parliament, which was effective in the EU beginning July 1, 2006, aims to protect human health and the environment by restricting the use of certain hazardous substances in new equipment, and consists of restrictions on lead, mercury, cadmium, and other substances. The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directive was developed to minimize the disposal of electrical and electronic equipment into landfills. WD hard drive products and packaging include the WEEE symbol in support of this directive. Supplier Compliance WD has conducted and continues to conduct very extensive tests regarding use of environmental compliant material on all our components. WD requires all component suppliers meet WD’s environmental Specification, titled â€Å"WD’s Environmental Guidelines for Materials, Components and Products.† This 20-page Specification sets forth the maximum threshold limits for restricted, prohibited and managed substances and requires suppliers to adhere to all applicable laws. In addition, the Specification states that all WD suppliers and sub-suppliers will be expected to complete environmental declaration forms for all new materials and components based on a combination of knowledge of their incoming raw materials, process review and their own analytical testing and certification data. Suppliers are required to maintain documented records, made available to Western Digital, indicating which measures are used to ensure compliance to the Specification. We review all suppliers ’ Declarations of compliance with WD’s environmental Specification during the launch of every new hard drive program and also track this together with a 3rd party Analytical lab data by component in our Environmental Compliance database. In addition, we maintain strict requirements with respect to Supplier Process/Material Change requests. Suppliers are also required to keep records of their in process tests to ensure compliance to the approved Process Management Plan and approved materials. These are regularly audited by WD. Greenhouse Gas Emissions Global climate change, caused by increasing concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide, is one of the most significant concerns facing our world today. As a corporate citizen, WD is particularly sensitive to the effects of global climate change. The need to understand the science of climate change and to formulate appropriate policy to address scientific findings is intensifying with each passing day. To view WD’s Greenhouse Gas report, click here. Q&A for Environmental and Hazardous Materials Environmental QDoes Western Digital have management representatives responsible for assuring compliance with respect to environmental laws, regulations and codes? AYes. Western Digital has management representatives at all critical sites whose core responsibility is monitoring, communicating and training employees in all aspects of environmental compliance as related to the specific facility. QDo Western Digital’s facilities receive periodic audits of environmental practices in order to assess conformance with regulatory and other requirements? AYes. Western Digital conducts both internal and external audits to evaluate its compliance with applicable environmental laws and regulations. QWhat types of policies, rules or procedures does Western Digital maintain relative to environmental programs? AWestern Digital maintains environmental polices, rules and/or procedures which address environmental permits, pollution prevention, hazardous substances, liquid waste, solid waste, air emission controls and product content. The substance of these programs is delivered to our employee population utilizing various formats including in-person training, web-based training, face-to-face communications, postings and bulletins. All programs are communicated in various languages appropriate to the employee population of each of our facilities to insure that all employees have a clear understanding of the programs. QDoes Western Digital place contractual requirements on its suppliers to be in compliance with environmental laws, regulations and codes of conduct? AYes. Whenever possible, Western Digital executes contracts with its suppliers which require, among other things, that the suppliers comply with all relevant and applicable environmental laws and regulations. QIs Western Digital required to maintain certain environmental permits in the operations of its facilities? AYes. Western Digital is required to maintain certain environmental permits as related to the operations of its facilities. Based on the geography and the operations, permits may be required for chemical handling and storage, waste treatment, wastewater discharge, air emissions and storage tanks. QDoes Western Digital make available Material Data Safety Sheets (MSDS) to workers that handle chemicals? AYes. Western Digital makes MSDS sheets available to employees onsite at all of its facilities. In addition, Western Digital contracts for OnCall MSDS information domestically. Hazardous Materials QDoes Western Digital use hazardous materials in its manufacturing process? AYes. Western Digital utilizes a variety of hazardous materials in its manufacturing operations. Classifications of hazardous materials include flammables, combustibles, corrosives and toxic gases. QHow does Western Digital store chemicals at its facilities? AWestern Digital stores all hazardous materials in compliance with applicable laws and regulations. Storage areas are secured and covered containing various types of containers including bottles, cylinders, drums and other approved vessels with the appropriate type of labeling and containment as required or recommended by codes, regulations and other authorities. QDoes Western Digital generate wastes that are classified as hazardous wastes? AYes. Western Digital generates various types and quantities of hazardous wastes. All wastes are disposed of in compliance with applicable law, and we regularly audit our hazardous waste haulers and their facilities. QDoes Western Digital have a program or procedures for management of hazardous waste? AYes. Western Digital has a variety of programs and procedures for the management of its hazardous waste. These include monitoring, characterization, treatment, conversion and disposition. All wastes are disposed of in compliance with applicable law, and we regularly audit our hazardous waste haulers and their facilities. QDoes Western Digital have a site specific management system registered to ISO 14001, OSHAS 18001, or other recognized health and safety or environmental management standards? AYes. Western Digital factories in Malaysia and Thailand maintain management systems which have earned the ISO 14001 and OSHAS 18001 designation. QDoes Western Digital have programs or procedures to reduce or eliminate pollution and waste in its operations? AWestern Digital is always looking for ways to eliminate or reduce pollution or waste generated by our operations. Among the programs we consider are solvent re-use or elimination, process waste and emission minimization, packaging reduction, recycling or elimination as well as reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. QDoes Western Digital have programs or procedures to reduce the use of energy, water and other natural resources in its operations? AWestern Digital is always looking for ways to reduce energy and other natural resource consumption in our operations. Among the programs we consider are evaluating product or process design modifications, improvement in energy efficiency of process, and the evaluation of construction, maintenance and land use programs.

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Plaisio Computers - Research Paper Example In the United States, there is a growing trend for environmental responsibility at the corporate level, at such a level that it seems to be driving the activities of competing companies in how they approach their advertising strategies. Unlike the European markets, the United States companies in the technology sales and service support industry often use environmentalism and corporate support for improving a greener lifestyle as part of the heavy promotional investment. In fact, a large retailer in the US, Best Buy, has been offering free recycling services for customers as a means to lure them into their stores. This includes old desktops and old analog television sets, as two examples. Being the sales leader that Best Buy has become in this market, consumers who need to get rid of their old computer technologies, and have no idea how to go about it, are drawn to this strategy and it can serve as a significant strategic marketing advantage to improve sales with American consumers. Also in this environment, consumers are reconsidering the importance of extended service plans, those plans that offer continued benefits for making an electronics product purchase. Says a retail executive in this country, â€Å"You used to be able to fix a TV with a solder gun and transistors. That’s not the case anymore; it can be a $400 part† (Klosek, 2009, p.28). The extended service plan also provides companies with considerable profit opportunity, since it is a pay-now type of risk agreement where the retailer is able to measure actual cash balance in real-time by adding costs to the product sales receipt.  There are difficulties with this market entry strategy that should be identified, the most considerable is the high level of competition in the sales of electronics and similar devices all across this populated region.

ACT 19 COCA-COLA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

ACT 19 COCA-COLA - Essay Example The company maintains high ethical standards and it is a corporate citizen. Coca-Cola has had positive impacts on the Russian community and economy in general. The company has provided jobs to most individuals in the Russian economy. In addition to, Coca-Cola was the primary sponsor of the first Olympic Games in Moscow. In the Russia, the government does not allow homosexuality. On the other hand, Coca-Cola supports gays worldwide which is against the Russian laws. In Russia, the government banned the sale of Coca-Cola to children under the age of eighteen years old. The prohibition on sale of Coca-Cola to underage children is to protect their health. The parliament of Russia ban on the drink was because of the expert opinion of the adverse effects of Coca Cola on the human body. The demand for the drink in Russia has fallen, and the company has opted to close down some of the factories in the country. It is because the company is under criticism for the production of unhealthy products for its citizens. Coca-Cola Company is one of the largest non-alcoholic drinks in Germany. The company has American roots though it has a strong foundation in the country. The Coca-Cola Company provides economic value to the economy of Germany. It has positive impacts on the German economy because it has positive effects on the German GDP. It provides approximately1 billion dollars in tax to the German economy. It provides employment to most German individuals in the country. It is a stable employer in the country because it provides employment to many individuals. Coca-Cola sponsors some stadiums and sporting events in the country. It also sponsors numerous sporting events in the country. For example, the company sponsored the 2006 World Cup in the country. It was one of the major corporations to sponsor the World Cup in the country. The company works hand in hand with some enterprises in the Germany. Germany benefits more from the efforts of Coca-Cola

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Social Network and Privacy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6500 words

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LBs Management Case Study Questions - Essay Example Throughout the launching process, the Forever Young global advertising and communications team faced various challenges including miscommunication between the Toronto and London offices, information deficiency, and deficiency of time to deliver a final product. Team’s poor coordination and the decision by Florin and David to leave resulted in a team that had little knowledge of the market. These difficulties derailed the launching process. The difficulties experienced by LB’s organization are attributable to the use of a long communication link instead of a direct communication which was needed for the turnaround. The organization’s communication link encompassed account supervisors at the London and Toronto offices causing delays, and making it hard for the teams to quickly share information that would have helped in product designing. Also, these challenges are attributable to the failure of LB to adopt face-to-face communication, which would have helped in bui lding the togetherness that the organization direly needed at the launching phase. If I were Janet Carmichael, I will decentralize the team. After decentralization, I would adopt the traditional format of task assigning. This would be most expedient for the organization. After decentralization, it will imply that client’s local offices will gain more ability and power. Effective coordination will thus take place at the local level, and cost efficiency of the venture will be enhanced since LB’s team will work directly with clients.

Jane Eyre in the Opening 3 Chapters Essay Example for Free

Jane Eyre in the Opening 3 Chapters Essay Charlotte Bronte is the author of the novel Jane Eyre about an orphaned girl struggling throughout the novel to achieve equality and to overcome oppression. In the opening 3 chapters, Bronte emphasizes Jane’s loneliness, lack of familial affection and emphasizes her sensitive nature and inner strength. As we witness Jane being punished and neglected at the hands of her unfeeling aunts and left feeling isolated and out of place in her society. Firstly, we are introduced to Jane, hiding reading a book. This establishes her odd and lonely place at Gateshead hall. As not only is she separated from the rest of the reed family but Bronte explains that she is ‘happy’ and ‘feared nothing except interruption’. To feel safe and content only from being excluded from her family signifies jane’s neglected and troubled childhood. This is indicated as a child should want to be surrounded by family and love. for Jane to be living in ‘despair’ by the sense of this seclusion to be ‘obstructed’ implies her inner strength of independence as she’s willing to find a book and read educating herself instead of moping and giving up. And she’s joyful when emphasises her independence and drive to find a book and read rather than mope. ane sitting and reading by herself, not allowed to play with her cousins, establishes her odd and lonely position at Gateshead Hall. Yet her willingness to find a book to read, rather than just moping, establishes her independence.

Drama activities: teaching english in the esl classroom

Drama activities: teaching english in the esl classroom If even the greatest dramatist that has ever lived in this world believes that all humans are actors, who are we to disagree? I for one completely do not. As a language practitioner, I for one strongly believe that drama has the potential of making the learning experience fun for the students and even memorable because it is â€Å"real†. Let me tell you why. Students in schools today seem to have very little exposure to the English language. The only contact with the language comes from being taught using the traditional ‘chalk and talk method in the English language classroom. They have very little experience with real-life situations where the English language is used as a communication tool. It is not surprising then that the Communicative Approach has been introduced in the new ‘Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah (KBSM) English Language program. The communicative syllabus will focus not only on the linguistic competence but also on the development of the communicative ability of the learner. Instead of being a passive participant, the learner is now encouraged to take a more active role in their own language learning process in the classroom. In line with the National Education Philosophy, classroom strategies devised by the English teacher should cater not only for efficient language but also provide opportunities for students personal development to produce students who are competent and confident language users (Compedium, 1989). Teachers who advocate the Communicative Approach are expected to develop strategies that would promote self-learning, group interactions in authentic situations and peer- teaching, instead of the traditionally teacher-dominated and teacher-directed classes. The activities would also require the learner to do things with the language such as making choices, evaluating, and bridging the information gap. Examples of such activities are drama, role-play, simulation games, improvisation and miming. For the purpose of this project paper, we shall look at drama activities as a communicative tool in the teaching and learning of English in the ESL classroom. Drama has always had a close relationship with the teaching of the English language. With its link to literature, drama is a powerful tool in developing the students communicative ability. Generally speaking, drama is student-centered because it puts the students in a position to do most of the communicating and interacting instead of the teacher. Therefore, the onus is now on the students to take control of their own learning. Psychologically, it is also very motivating for there are no wrong answers in drama, allowing success for each student. The flexibility and openness of drama also provides the students a greater degree of freedom as compared to when they are required to find a single acceptable answer in the conventional English language lesson. Students acquire fluency skills at a much faster rate as a result of promoting student student talk and reducing the teachers role to a necessary low level or almost non-existent in some cases. Looking at it from the teachers perspective, engaging in group activities, as in drama, allows students to feel more relaxed and in turn feel comfortable to express their feelings better; compared to when they are required to come up with individual responses. Used properly, drama allows both the teacher and learner to gauge how far the learners ability to communicate has developed and this in time can develop confidence and better social skills in the learner. Furthermore, it is emphasized that English should be taught to not only develop the basic means of communication, but to further encourage fluent and accurate expression, both oral and written. Once the students begin to master the language they should be able to overcome their self-consciousness and develop their confidence to express views openly and articulately. These students would then make English meaningful and relevant in the sense that now they can take it out of the classroom and use it in their everyday lives. It i s rather obvious to realize the common ground English and drama share. Drama should contribute significantly to the realization of all these aims. Statement of the Problem Students in schools today seem to find the learning of English irrelevant and to a certain extent, confusing. They do not need to use the English they have learnt in the classroom in their daily lives. English language moreover, is often described as â€Å"a strong second language† but is, in reality only treated as a foreign language in all primary and secondary schools (Compendium, 1989). This change in the status of English in the system has brought with it a lot of problems for both teachers and students. Students who are hesitant to communicate in English may view the use of the language orally as trivial and insignificant to language learning. To them, to be merely ‘competent in the language is sufficient, rather than to ‘perform them (Chomsky, 1965). In actual fact, students especially the shy and silent ones, are afraid of making bizarre mistakes or errors. Thus, many resort to the use of their mother tongues or their L1 in their daily discussions or daily convers ations. The launching of the Language Policy in 1971 adds to this restriction. Bahasa Melayu was made the sole medium of instruction in schools and other formal events. At the same time, students of all races and background seemed to be more comfortable communicating in Bahasa Melayu, and so the importance of English language has been gradually declining. One possible way of overcoming this problem is to supplement the conventional English teaching methods with suitable teaching techniques such as drama, which offer the students the chance to actually use the English they have learnt. Even though the students English may not be perfect, the activities would help them to improve verbal communication. Objective of the Study The main aim of this study is to give a broad introduction to drama and to show how such techniques can be useful in the teaching and learning of the English language, particularly in Malaysian schools. This exploratory study plans to achieve the following objectives: To determine the students extent of exposure to drama activities. To ascertain students motivation towards learning English. To assess students attitudes towards learning English. Research Questions Specifically, this study seeks answers for the following research questions: Have the students been exposed to drama activities in their language classroom? What are the students motivations in learning the English language? What are the students attitudes towards English? Significance of the Study There is fundamental need for learners to bring what they have learned in the four walls of the classroom out into the open and apply it in ‘real-life situations; and drama activities meet this need. This study therefore hopes to make teachers of English language aware and to have the conviction that drama activities can be an effective tool in language teaching. It is hoped that this study will be an ‘eye opener for teachers and students of ESL. It provides the necessary information for language teachers to make students inevitably participate in the English lesson and thereby gain self-confidence in using the language. Thus, the significance of this study is to make ESL teachers aware that rather than acting in plays or studying them, students are taught English using a technique derived from drama as a social process of development. This will obviously promote the use of drama in the teaching and learning of ESL and in its widest sense, is best seen as an alternative methodology to one based on the traditional ‘chalk and talk. As far as students are concerned, they will soon see the purpose of drama activities in their learning and how realistic and relevant they are when applied in their everyday lives. Since drama activities often portray the society from which the students come from, it can give the students an opportunity to feel what life is all about. Drama activities encourage the students to make practical and rational judgments when confronted by complex situations, which they may encounter later in life. This valuable experience would certainly hold them in good stead in their future. Thus, the significance of the study advocates the usage of drama activities in the ESL classroom. It is aspired that teachers would adopt this technique and adapt the activities to the relevance and needs of their students. Limitations of the Study On the basis of discussion on this project paper, the drama activities presented is targeted towards Form four students of intermediate proficiency level. The drama activities are some of the possibilities for social interactions that lie within classroom situations. However, some of its limitations were recognized, in particular: In situations outside the classroom, learners will need to satisfy a much wider variety of communicative needs arising from the events of everyday life. They will need to cope with greater variety of patterns of interactions. These may vary from the formal interview, with its tightly controlled structure, to the informal gathering where everybody competes on an equal basis for turns to speak. They will need to become involved in different kinds of social relationship, for which different forms of language will be needed. In order to prepare learners to cope with these wider functional and social needs, we must look for ways extending the possibilities for communicative interactions in the classroom (Littlewood, 1984). It is hoped that by using the drama activities, the apparent gaps can be bridged and in return the students language competency and performance can be enhanced. Definition of Terms Drama How do we, as teachers of English as a Second Language bring drama into todays classroom? Though some teachers have tried using drama in their classroom, they are still in a state of confusion. This is not because they do not know how to teach it, but simply because they are not sure of its purpose in education. The use of communicative activities is a technique to achieve one of the aims of the communicative approach, which is to obtain communicative competence. The important aspect of this approach is to communicate with another person in the classroom and in the long term, the society (Wan, 1990). Drama used in the classroom can be considered a communicative activity since it fosters communication between learners and provides opportunities to use the target language in various ‘make believe situations. Thus, drama is any activity, which asks the participant to portray himself in an imaginary situation; or to portray another person in an imaginary situation. Drama is concerned with the world of ‘pretense. It provides an opportunity for a person to express himself through verbal expressions and gestures using his imagination and memory. According to Wan (1990), drama takes what it shares with English, an emphasis on developing the means of communication and extends this means to include all the paralinguistic aids to meaning which takes communication beyond just writing to gestures and physical interaction. Drama activities draw on the natural ability of every person to imitate, mimic and express himself. The students are encouraged to draw on their natural capacity to live parts of his past experience that might otherwise never emerge. When students are brought together they bring along with them different life and different background into the classroom. According to the Oxford Dictionary (1995), drama is defined as a literary composition to be performed by actors; play or the art of acting, writing or producing plays. But for the purpose of this paper, drama refers more to informal (creative drama) as it is used in the language classroom and not on stage. Drama is doing. Drama is being. Drama is such a normal thing. It is something that we all engage in daily when faced with difficult situation. This is clearly illustrated by Tricia (1984) when she quotes, â€Å"Getting on with our day-to-day live requires a series of masks†. Generally, drama is considered as a type of activity in which the learners are given fairly controlled scenarios to interpret. But the term drama is often viewed with confusion because different people use it in different ways to suit different contexts. As such, it seems necessary to define the terms from the perspective of teaching and learning English as a Second Language (ESL). Drama takes into account the socio-psychological aspects of learning as it involves the whole person and his total response. For some students drama techniques can be an alternative means of learning the language and may produce far more positive results than normal classroom teaching (Mordecai, 1985). CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction Drama is used in ESL classrooms to promote communication in its authentic form. The Communicative Approach advocates that learners need to learn how to use the target language in ‘real life situations and drama activities meet this need, for it allows natural learning. If examined carefully, we would find that, English teachers define English as one that encourages and develops communication skills, self-expression, imagination and creativity. These are the key terms, which would surface as aims of teaching in a language classroom. When similarly confronted, teachers of drama say the same thing. Thus, drama invariably and significantly contributes to the realization of all the aims in an ESL classroom. The Communicative Approach The term ‘approach refers to the theories about the nature of how language is learnt (Richards, 1986). It takes into account the basic units of language structure and the nature of language proficiency. It also considers the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning and the conditions that allow for effective learning to take place. The Communicative Approach thus refers to the belief that language learning is communicative competence (Richards, 1986). Communicative competence here refers not only to the knowledge of the grammatical rules of a language and how to form grammatical sentences but also to know when, where and to whom to use these sentences in a speech community (Richards, 1985 and Hymes, 1972). Communicative ‘Methodology on the other hand, refers to the different ways of teaching language using the communicative approach. Therefore, the term ‘techniques refers to different classroom activities (Wan, 1990). In this study they will be called communicative activities. In the Communicative Approach, language teaching and learning emphasized the use of language for the communication of meaning than learning the language structures, forms and vocabulary (Wilkins, 1976 and Widdowson, 1978). However, this does not imply that the grammatical and lexical aspects are neglected. In fact, they do have a place in the Communicative Method of language teaching. Therefore, the ‘how of language teaching and learning refers to the specific techniques and procedures used to unconsciously acquire and consciously learn a language through communication (Brumfit, 1984). The Nature of Communicative Activities Communicative activities refer to the techniques, which are employed in the communicative method in language teaching. Examples of such activities are games, simulation, miming, drama and role-play, which make use of the target language. The activities involve doing things with language and these language activities for communication is not restricted to conversation and may involve listening, speaking, reading and writing or an integration of two or more skills. Communicative activities have the following characteristics (Wan, 1990): They are purposeful. They are beyond strictly practicing particular structures. They are interactive. The activities are often conducted with others and often involve some form of discussion. Authentic materials are used. The situations in which the learners have to use language should be as realistic as possible. The language models given should be authentic. They are based on the information gap principle. Five guiding principles have been vividly outlined behind the use of communicative activities as language teaching and learning techniques (Morrow, 1981). They are as follows: 1. Know what you are doing. This principle gives relevance to the lesson, which the students would want to use in order to perform in the target language. For example in teaching speaking, the task could be asking for directions to a certain place.. The students here communicate with each other and there is no control over the exact language used but the situation is controlled. 2. The whole is more important than the sum of the parts. In the communicative method, the natural language is dealt in real situations where it is necessary to work in the context of the whole. Communication is not learnt inductively as it cannot easily be analyzed into its various components without its nature being destroyed in the process. For example you may teach the component of various forms of greeting but it is no guarantee that the student will be able to choose the appropriate form when required in a real-life situation. 3. The processes are as important as the forms. The processes of communication such as information gap, choice and feedback, should be as much as possible replicated in trying to develop the ability of the students to communicate in the target language. The teacher must try to devise exercises where there is an information gap so that real meaningful communication can take place. The participants in a conversation also have a choice in what they say and how they say it. When undergoing these processes, there should be ample feedback during interaction between two speakers in order to gauge if the message has been successfully sent across. 4. To learn it, do it. Only by practicing communicative activities would students learn to communicate. Students must become responsible for their own learning. This is what student-centeredness entails and thus the role of the teacher consequently changes. He / she must learn to take a backseat and should no longer dominate the learning situation. The teacher is now a facilitator and should strive to provide all the help the student needs to play an active role in his own learning. 5. Mistakes are not always mistakes. As language practitioners we must able to make the distinction between ‘mistakes and ‘errors. There is the need for flexibility in deciding to treat ‘mistakes at different stages of the learning process towards communicative competence. We must not be hasty in wielding the axe on the students as ‘mistakes are evidence of learning taking place after all. The use of communicative activities is to achieve one of the aims of the communicative approach, which is communicative competence. The essence of this approach is to communicate with another person in the classroom and in long term the society. Hence, drama can be used in the classroom since it fosters communication between learners and provides opportunities to use the target language in various ‘make believe situations. Drama also allows participants the opportunity to act out roles and to use all the media of communication, the voice, gesture and movement. It thus takes what it shares with English, an emphasis on developing the means of communication, and extending these means to include all the paralinguistic aids to form meaning. This takes communication beyond the two dimensions, writing and talking, to involve the third dimension of gesture and physical interaction, thus encouraging active and discriminating observation and listening, which true communication always dem ands (Tricia, 1984). Drama Versus Theater Susan Holden (1981) defines drama as any activity which asks the participant to portray himself in an imaginary situation; or to portray another person in an imaginary situation. Drama is thus concerned with the world of lets pretend. It provides an opportunity for a person to express himself through verbal expressions and gestures using his imagination and memory. In this paper, drama refers more to dramatic activities as the setting is the language classroom rather than the stage. The participants in the drama activities are thus learners and not actors. To have a further understanding between Drama and Theater, a clear distinction has to be made between the two concepts. One way of accomplishing this is to look at Drama as process oriented and Theater as being product oriented. Through the examination of the fundamental features that lay behind both these concepts, ONeill (1995) came up with the following characteristics for each of them: 1. Drama as a Process The emphasis is placed on participants experiencing personal growth through an exploration of their understanding of the issues within dramatic experience. Student and teacher share equal places in the development, analysis and the carrying out of the drama activities. The drama is normally not performed for an audience. 2. Theater as a Product The students personal growth is measured through the learning of skills. The study is facilitated through a scripted work not of the students making. The teacher transfers her or his interpretation and analysis of the drama. The primary objective is formal play production. For the purpose of this paper, we will focus on Drama as a Process rather than Theater as a Product. As opposed to the traditional idea of theater, which results in an end performance, drama as a process is performed for the sake of the act of doing it, not for an audience, not for a production, and it doesnt need to be rehearsed. The audience can simply be the performers themselves. Drama as a process refers to a teaching method that involves children in imaginary, unscripted, and spontaneous scenes, in which the meaning is made from the engagement and transactions between the teacher and students (Schneider Jackson, 2000). The students and teachers work together to create an imaginary dramatic world within which issues are considered and problems can be solved. In this world they work together to explore problems and issues such as betrayal, truth and other ethical and moral issues. ONeill (1995) mentions that sometimes the work may begin as light-hearted, but the teacher always layers more dramatic tension and complexity into the work because the teacher may aim for a pedagogical outcome. In Drama as a Process, students learn to think beyond their own points of view and consider multiple perspectives on a topic through playing different roles. Playing a range of positions encourages them to be able to empathize with others and to consider life from their viewpoint. It allows them to walk on other peoples shoes, to walk the paths they tread and to see how the world looks from their eyes. Since the end product is not the focus, students work at every moment to produce to the best of their ability. In this way, drama can be seen as more meaningful, productive, and well-rounded. Drama thus, not only teaches students to be better communicators in a variety of authentic situations, but also compels them to use English in ways that differ from everyday classroom interactions, mimicking more authentic language use. Drama in the ESL Classroom Generally, drama involves being an imaginary person usually in an imaginary situation and sometimes a real one (Venugopal, 1986). The learners are given fairly controlled scenarios to interpret. Drama is defined by the scope of the task of problem-solving in order to achieve their goals. Students need to know of their ability to learn from each other as well as to learn independently. They should be aware that they are working towards a goal within a given time limit. This will sharpen their concentration and at the end of the lesson they should have satisfaction of having achieved that goal (Venugopal, 1986). Drama in education is a mode of learning. Through the pupils active identification with the imagined role and situations in drama, they can learn to explore issues, events and relationships (ONeil, 1994). In drama, students draw on their knowledge and experience of the real world in order to create their own experience they have as well as their knowledge, which they have gained from books, films or television. Although, these imaginary situations may at first seem superficial and only action oriented, through the teachers guidance and careful intervention it should be possible for the work to grow in depth. In creating a make believe world students can come to understand themselves and their real world in which they live. In order to engage in drama activities students do not need sophisticated theatre skills. However, they must be willing to (ONeil, 1997): Make believe with regard to objects, for example, a table-top can become a wagon or raft; a circle of chairs may represent a starship; cupped hands may contain a precious object. Make believe with regards to actions and situations, for example, creeping across the school hall may be means of escaping from the jail; a group sitting huddled on the floor may be passengers on an emigrant ship; stealing a bunch of keys may represent a test of stealth and cunning for the warriors. Adopt a role, for example, settlers who seek a new life in a foreign country; poor children living on the streets; teenagers who have left home. Maintain the make believe verbally, for example, describing the doorway in which they spent the night; presenting the facts about child labour to the committee for reform; discussing the problems to be faced on a voyage. Interact with the rest of the group, for example, agreeing to join the crew of the starship; choosing a leader for the community; teaching a skill to a friend; In drama activities, students are given the opportunities to draw together all the bits of language they have learnt and practice it in situations they are likely to encounter outside the classroom. In any drama activity, learners must create the interactions themselves on the basis of their roles rather than perform in ways that have been predetermined by the teacher (Littlewood, 1981). This freedom of choice offers the students the chance to use their English learnt to develop the character, therefore promoting spontaneity in activities similar to â€Å"real-communication†. Drama in a way helps students to improve oral and verbal communication despite gaps in their knowledge. However, the use of picture cards and other visual cues will narrow these gaps. Drama activities are essentially social activities and involve contact, communication and the negotiation of meaning. The nature of the work will impose certain pressures on the students but will also bring considerable rewards. Co-operative activities are very rare in the Malaysian schools. Too often students are trained to work as individuals and to be both competitive and possessive about their achievements. Drama on the other hand, works from the strength of the groups. Drama is an individuals spontaneous behavior reacting to others in a hypothetical situation. The essential core of the activity is understanding the situation of another person, and to do this well the ‘player needs to come to grip with the other participants roles, not just his own. In practice, this works when a ‘player is given the basic information about who he is, what he is like, and what he wants to do. He must interact with others and relate his situation to theirs and gain a greater understanding of the roles, the relationship and the language involved (Revell, 1979). Movements and Mime Mime involves the expressive use of the body. It is a non-verbal representation of an idea or story through gestures, bodily movements and expressions. It may seem strange that mime should be encouraged in language teaching, as it does not involve language. It must be borne in mind that though no language is used during the mime, it will act as a catalyst to generate language during the discussions before the mime is presented and also elicit language when there is need for explanations (Edwin, 1992). Mime is thus used to enrich verbal features rather than replace them. After a mime session, parallel exercises are carried out where appropriate words are added to the mime activities. In the English language classroom, unlike in theatres mime activities are not demanding and this makes mime activities suitable for poor and shy students who lack the necessary level of language proficiency. Mime activities can be incorporated into scenes from texts or improvisation of scenes from texts. Role Play Simulation and role play provide the opportunity to move away from the traditional role of teachers and also the classroom setting arrangements where the class is rearranged to reflect the situation that is being dramatized (Edwin, 1992). Role play can be used for students of different proficiency levels. However, the teacher will have to decide the degree of control over the scenario for the role play. For the very shy and low proficiency students, teachers could ask students to dramatize conversations and dialogues directly from the texts. For students with some English proficiency, teachers could provide a situation, which is relatively structured so that these students would feel confident and be more willing to participate. The more proficient students could be given less structured scenario and they should be encouraged to attempt to improvise the same text. In role play, a student is required to imagine that he is either himself or another person in a particular situation. He would be asked to behave exactly as he feels the person would. His portrayal of the character will help him understand the character and also provide an intimate experience with the literary text. There are many types of role play, for example, dramatic plays, story dramatization and socio-drama, seminar style presentation, debates and interviews. Simulations Simulations are drama activities that often mirror real life. They can however be imaginary. They are often problem solving activities and students bring their personality, knowledge and experience into these activities. Among the common forms of simulation is the mock trial. It is popular with students and court cases are quite easy to be developed from literary texts, often based on the conflicts faced by the characters in the story. Other forms of simulation can also be encouraged. For example, group work in the fo